Estimating gender differences in access to jobs: females trapped at the bottom of the ladder

In this paper, we propose a job assignment model allowing for a gender difference in access to jobs. Males and females compete for the same job positions. They are primarily interested in the best-paid jobs. A structural relationship of the model can be used to empirically recover the probability ratio of females and males getting a given job position. As this ratio is allowed to vary with the rank of jobs in the wage distribution of positions, barriers in females' access to high-paid jobs can be detected and quantiffed. We estimate the gender relative probability of getting any given job position for full-time executives aged 40-45 in the private sector. This is done using an exhaustive French administrative dataset on wage bills. Our results show that the access to any job position is lower for females than for males. Also, females' access decreases with the rank of job positions in the wage distribution, which is consistent with females being faced with more barriers to high-paid jobs than to low-paid jobs. At the bottom of the wage distribution, the probability of females getting a job is 12% lower than the probability of males. The difference in probability is far larger at the top of the wage distribution and climbs to 50%.gender ; discrimination ; wages ; quantiles ; job assignment model ; glass ceiling

Heterogeneity and wage inequalities over the life cycle

Using panel data from a single cohort of French male wage earners observed over a long span of 30 years starting at their entry in the labor market, we estimate parameters of a human capital investment model by random and fixed effect methods. Individual wage proles are described by their individual-specific level, slope and curvature. This allows a fine decomposition of the variance of (log-)wages at different times of the life-cycle and in the long run. Among salient results, short run time-varying inequalities are shown to be larger that long run inequality by a factor of 20% to 80%. Individual permanent heterogeneity explain between 60 to 90% of the variance of wages. Single dimensional heterogeneity explains well those variances at a point in time but not over the whole period or in the long run. Multidimensional heterogeneity is needed and in particular under the form of a horizon individual effect

Heterogeneity and wage inequalities over the life cycle

Using panel data from a single cohort of French male wage earners observed over a long span of 30 years starting at their entry in the labor market, we estimate parameters of a human capital investment model by random and fixed effect methods. Individual wage proles are described by their individual-specific level, slope and curvature. This allows a fine decomposition of the variance of (log-)wages at different times of the life-cycle and in the long run. Among salient results, short run time-varying inequalities are shown to be larger that long run inequality by a factor of 20% to 80%. Individual permanent heterogeneity explain between 60 to 90% of the variance of wages. Single dimensional heterogeneity explains well those variances at a point in time but not over the whole period or in the long run. Multidimensional heterogeneity is needed and in particular under the form of a horizon individual effect

Tensile response of the muscle-tendon complex using discrete element model

Tear of the muscle-tendon complex (MTC) is one of the main causes of sport injuries (De Labareyre et al. 2005). However, the mechanisms leading to such injury are still unclear (Uchiyama et al. 2011). Before modeling the tear of the MTC, its behavior in tensile test will be first studied. The MTC is a multi-scale, non isotropic and non continuous structure that is composed of numerous fascicles gathered together in a conjunctive sheath (epimysium). Many MTC models use the Finite Element Method (FEM) (Bosboom et al. 2001) to simulate MTC’s behavior as a hyperviscoelastic material. The Discrete Element Method (DEM) used for modeling composite materials (Iliescu et al. 2010) could be adapted to fibrous materials as the MTC. Compared to FEM, the DEM could allow to capture the complex behavior of a material with a simple discretization scheme in terms of concept and implementation as well as to understand the influence of fibers’ orientation on the MTC behavior. The aim of this study was to obtain the force/displacement relationship during a numerical tensile test of a pennate muscle model with DEM

Relative Productivity and the Use of Short-Term Jobs in Companies

The use of short-term jobs by companies may be designed to achieve two objectives: flexibility and selection/motivation. In order to distinguish between these aims, the productivity of these jobs is compared with that of employees employed for under a year but remaining with the company and with that of workers employed for over a year. While short-term jobs prove to be more productive than others filled for a comparable length of time in the service sector, this differential is not present in the industrial sector. In industry, recently employed employees seem to fill jobs with identical productivity and which are therefore similar in nature, whether or not they are asked to remain in the company. In services, employees filling a short-term position fill posts which are more immediately productive. The use of short-term jobs is not mainly motivated by the companies' desire to select their employees or encourage them to work hard.Job Instability, Job Seniority, Production Function